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Exploration of Body Image, Body Appreciation, Body Dysmorphia and Eating Disorder among Gym-Goers and Non-Gym-Goers
*Corresponding author: Rupam Banerjee, Department of Psychology, Sarojini Naidu College for Women, Kolkata, West Bengal, India. banerjeerupam05@gmail.com
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Received: ,
Accepted: ,
How to cite this article: Bhattacharya A, Banerjee R. Exploration of Body Image, Body Appreciation, Body Dysmorphia and Eating Disorder among Gym-Goers and non-Gym-Goers. Bengal J Psychiatry. 2025;30:55-62. doi: 10.25259/BJPSY_13_2025
Abstract
Introduction:
Psychological factors like body image, body appreciation, and body dysmorphia significantly affect a person’s overall well-being. While going to the gym is often linked to physical fitness, it doesn’t always mean someone is truly healthy physically or mentally. Gym attendance can have a mixed effect on how people feel about their bodies. Some studies indicate that going to the gym can improve body satisfaction and appreciation, but others show that frequent exposure to fitness ideals may lower body satisfaction and increase the tendency to compare oneself to others.
Objectives:
This research aimed to compare gym-goers and non-gym-goers regarding body image, body appreciation, body dysmorphia, and eating disorders. The study also looked at gender differences in these areas to see if males and females experience different levels of body dissatisfaction, appreciation, and disordered eating behaviors. The research aimed to find out if going to the gym leads to positive or negative effects on body image and eating habits.
Material and Methods:
The study utilized four reliable instruments to assess body-related perceptions and behaviors: the Body Image Questionnaire for body image concerns, the Body Appreciation Scale-2 for positive body image, the Body Dysmorphic Disorder (BDD) scale for dysmorphic features, and the Eating Questionnaire (EQ) for disordered eating attitudes and behaviors. A comparative research design was used to examine the differences between gym-goers and non-gym-goers. Participants’ responses were collected through self-report standardized tools and analyzed to explore the relationship between gym attendance and psychological factors related to body image. Statistical analyses were performed to identify gender differences and the impact of gym attendance on these factors.
Results:
Gender differences have been found to be significant, which indicates the necessity of the development of a gender-based healthy body attitude that encourages interventions. It was viewed that females have greater body dissatisfaction, body image issues, and eating disorders. Males are less body dissatisfied, body image disturbed, and have more issues with body appreciation. Dissatisfaction, eating behaviors, and issues with body images do not have a bearing on whether they attend the gym or not.
Conclusion:
The study concludes that going to the gym does not automatically lead to either positive or negative outcomes related to body image. Females generally had higher body dissatisfaction and eating disorder tendencies, while males exhibited greater body appreciation and lower dissatisfaction levels. It was also seen that body dissatisfaction was moderately related to increased BDD symptoms and decreased body appreciation, whereas the latter was strongly connected with decreased BDD symptoms and was weakly related to healthier eating behavior.
Keywords
Body appreciation
Body dissatisfaction
Body image
Eating issues
Quantitative studies
INTRODUCTION
Gender significantly influences individuals’ body image, as evidenced by the strong cultural emphasis on physical appearance across genders.1,2 Representations of women’s and men’s bodies highlight their distinct lived experiences, with gender differences in body image being among the most consistent findings in psychological literature, showing that men and women think, feel, and behave differently toward their bodies.3,4 These differences contribute to various psychological challenges and disorders in both genders.1,5 To understand these disparities, it is necessary to examine how body image perceptions, emotions, and behaviors differ between men and women.
Body image
Body image is a multifaceted construct encompassing self-perceptions, attitudes, beliefs, emotions, and behaviors toward one’s body.6–8 Although often perceived as a fixed trait, body image is dynamic, shaped by interactions between the self, body, and social environment. Negative body image is closely linked with psychological problems such as depression, anxiety, social withdrawal, and disordered eating. Body dissatisfaction is particularly prevalent during adolescence and early adulthood, periods marked by identity development and heightened self-awareness.
Gender and body perceptions (fragmented vs. functional)
Body perceptions refer to conscious awareness and evaluations of one’s physical self. Gendered differences in these perceptions are well-documented, particularly in the tendency of women to adopt a fragmented view of their bodies—focusing on specific parts—while men tend to describe their bodies in functional terms.9 Women are thus more likely to develop a compartmentalized, fragmented body perspective compared to men, who focus more on bodily performance or function.
Body dissatisfaction
Body dissatisfaction, reflecting negative evaluations of body aspects, consistently shows higher prevalence among women from adolescence through adulthood.7,8,10 This has led to growing interest in exploring positive body image constructs such as body appreciation.
Body appreciation
Body appreciation is recognized as an adaptive and beneficial construct characterized by acceptance of body appearance, appreciation of bodily functionality, and rejection of unrealistic societal beauty ideals.11 Individuals with high body appreciation tend to resist internalizing unattainable appearance standards and maintain positive self-regard.
Appearance anxiety
Appearance anxiety refers to a concern about being judged based on appearance.12 Unrealistic beauty ideals particularly heighten this anxiety in women, who are often subject to external scrutiny and social pressures.12,13 Such anxiety is compounded by safety concerns, as women report employing everyday safety strategies that men rarely consider.14,15 Consequently, women’s experiences of their bodies often involve both aesthetic and safety-related concerns, leading to greater appearance anxiety compared to men.
Eating disorders
Eating disorders such as anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa disproportionately affect women, with approximately 90% of diagnosed cases being female.16 Although gender differences are smaller in disorders like binge-eating disorder,17 body dissatisfaction remains a central factor linking gender to disordered eating behaviors.18,19 These conditions, which carry some of the highest mortality rates among mental illnesses, they are far more common in women.
Body dysmorphic disorder (BDD)
BDD is characterized by obsessive concern over perceived or imagined flaws in appearance, significantly impairing daily functioning.20 While BDD affects men and women at similar rates, the focus of concern differs by gender—women often fixate on weight, hips, or skin, whereas men are more preoccupied with muscularity, genital size, or hair loss.21,22 A specific subtype, muscle dysmorphia, involves an obsession with increasing muscle mass. Regular gym attendance is often encouraged for psychological and physical well-being and may promote positive body image and intuitive eating.23,24 However, gym environments that emphasize idealized body types may also intensify body dissatisfaction, dysmorphia, or disordered eating, particularly when exercise is motivated by appearance concerns.25,26
Despite the growing research in this field, few studies directly compare gym-goers and non-gym-goers regarding body image, body appreciation, dysmorphia, and eating behaviors, particularly across genders and non-Western contexts such as India. This study aims to address these gaps by examining gender differences and the psychological impact of gym participation on body-related attitudes and behaviors.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
Primary objectives
The study aimed to determine variations in body image, body appreciation, and eating behaviors between gym-goers and non–gym-goers. It also sought to examine variations in these variables between genders, as well as between participants with high and low body mass index (BMI).
Secondary objectives
The study further aimed to analyze the correlation among body image, body appreciation, and eating behavior, and to investigate the association between body dysmorphic disorder (BDD), eating behavior, and age.
Sample size:
135 participants.
Sampling method:
Purposive sampling.
Inclusion criteria
Age ranged from 18 to 30 years.
Need to be visiting the gym for at least 1 year.
Exclusion criteria
Participants with physical disability or diagnosed mental condition.
Tools used
Body image questionnaire (BIQ):
Assesses self-perceptions and concerns regarding body image. Higher scores indicate greater body image concerns or dissatisfaction. The internal consistency (α = 0.82) reflects good reliability.
Body appreciation scale–2 (BAS–2):
Measures positive body image appreciation. It contains 10 items rated on a 5-point Likert scale (1 = Never, 5 = Always). Higher scores indicate greater appreciation of one’s body. The internal consistency (α = 0.90–0.97) is excellent across diverse samples.
BDD scale:
Assesses the frequency and severity of body dysmorphic features. It consists of 9 items rated on a 5-point Likert scale. Lower scores (<30) indicate minimal distress and are considered not at risk of BDD, whereas scores above 40 suggest a likely risk of BDD. The scale demonstrates strong test–retest reliability (r = 0.82) and high sensitivity and specificity.
Eating questionnaire (EQ)
The EQ assesses disordered eating attitudes and behaviors over the past four weeks (28 days). It includes four subscales: Restraint (items 1–5), Eating Concern (items 6–9 and 19–21), Shape Concern (items 5–8, 21, 23, 26–28), and Weight Concern (items 1–4, 6, 8, 22, 24–25). The scale demonstrates high internal consistency, with a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.90. Higher scores indicate greater disordered eating behaviors.
Data collection
We visited several gyms in the local area to collect data from gym-goers. In collaboration with gym owners and trainers, we explained the purpose of the study. With their consent, the gym staff introduced the study to their regular members. Participants were asked to provide written informed consent before taking part in the study. They completed the questionnaires in a quiet space within the gym to ensure comfort and focus. Most participants gave positive feedback and completed the forms immediately.
To gather data from non-gym-goers, we visited colleges and university departments that included students from various disciplines. We explained the nature of the study, distributed hard copies of the questionnaires, and personally collected the completed responses. Additionally, we shared an online version of the questionnaire via Google Forms and messaging applications to reach participants who could not attend in person. This strategy helped broaden and diversify the sample base.
Participants completed a set of standardized self-report psychological measures, which included:
BIQ
BAS
BDD scale
EQ
They were also required to provide demographic information, including age, gender, height, weight, and gym participation status (Yes/No), which was used for BMI calculation. Informed consent was obtained from all participants prior to data collection. They were assured that their responses would remain confidential, that participation was voluntary, and that they could withdraw at any time. Completing the questionnaires took approximately 15–20 minutes. Data were collected in settings convenient for participants, including gym lounges, college classrooms, and quiet home environments. Online participants completed the questionnaires remotely. Figure 1 represents the whole study design.
- Study design. BMI: Body mass index.
Statistical analysis
Data analysis was conducted using the Jamovi project (2024), Jamovi (version 2.6), and R Core Team (2024).
RESULTS
Table 1 is a group comparison for gym-goers and non-gymgoers by using the non-parametric Mann-Whitney U-test. The results show that there are no statistically significant differences in body image (p = 0.721), body appreciation (p = 0.165), BDD (p = 0.100), and eating behavior (p = 0.776), so it was concluded that gym participation did not significantly affect scores on body-related concerns or appreciation.
| Variables | Statistic | p | Effect size |
|---|---|---|---|
| Body image questionnaire (BIQ) | 2188 | 0.721 | 0.0355 |
| Body appreciation scale (BAS) | 1954 | 0.165 | 0.1387 |
| Body dysmorphic disorder scale (BDD) | 1895 | 0.100 | 0.1647 |
| Eating questionnaire (EQ) | 2203 | 0.776 | −0.0287 |
Note: Ha: μ_{Gymgoers} ≠ μ_{Nongoers}. BIQ: Body image questionnaire, BAS: Body appreciation scale, EQ: Eating questionnaire. p value < 0.05 have been considered significant.
Table 2 is a group compares on which is conducted on gender (male and female) for gym-goers and non-gym-goers by using the non-parametric Mann-Whitney U-test. In BIQ, the mean score is Female: M = 3.74, SD = 2.29, Male: M = 2.58, SD = 2.09, Mann-Whitney U = 1458, p = 0.006, and the effect size (rank biserial correlation) is −0.2880 (moderate), which shows a statistically significant difference was found between males and females on body image dissatisfaction, and females scored significantly higher, indicating greater body image concerns compared to males. The moderate effect size suggests this is not only statistically significant but also meaningful in practical terms.
| Variables | Statistic | p | Effect size |
|---|---|---|---|
| BIQ | 1458 | 0.006 | −0.2880 |
| BAS | 1575 | 0.028 | 0.2306 |
| Body dysmorphic disorder scale | 1903 | 0.505 | 0.0703 |
| EQ | 1639 | 0.058 | −0.1993 |
Note: HaμFemale≠ μMale. BIQ: Body image questionnaire, BAS: Body appreciation scale, EQ: Eating questionnaire. p value < 0.05 have been considered significant.
In the BAS, the mean score is in Female: M = 37.39, SD = 7.6, Male: M = 39.97, SD = 7.71, Mann-Whitney U = 1575, p = 0.028, and the effect size is 0.2306 (small to moderate). This is interpreted to mean that a significant difference was observed between males and females on body appreciation, where males reported higher body appreciation than females, and the positive effect size indicates a meaningful, though smaller, gender effect favoring males in terms of feeling more positively about their bodies. In the BDD scale, the mean score is in Female: M = 20.39, SD = 12.11, Male: M = 22.66, SD = 13.7, Mann-Whitney U = 1903, p = 0.505, and the effect size is 0.0703 (very small). This is interpreted as there was no significant difference between males and females in body dysmorphic symptoms. Although males had a slightly higher mean score, the result is not statistically significant, and the effect size is negligible. In the EQ, the mean score is in Female: M = 5.23, SD = 3.27, Male: M = 4.11, SD = 2.81, Mann-Whitney U-test = 1639, p = 0.058, and the effect size is −0.1993 (small). This was interpreted as the difference in disordered eating behaviors between males and females was not statistically significant, although it was close to the 0.05 level. Females had slightly higher scores, indicating more disordered eating attitudes, but the small effect size means this difference may not be practically meaningful.
Table 3 concluded as the Mann-Whitney U-test p-value and effect size (rank biserial correlation) of all the variables, the BIQ, the BAS, the BDD scale, and the EQ interpreted as None of the differences between normal and overweight BMI groups were statistically significant, though overweight participants had slightly higher scores in body image dissatisfaction and eating disturbances and lower scores in body appreciation; these differences were not strong enough to be considered meaningful in this sample. Effect sizes were small to negligible, supporting the conclusion that BMI does not significantly affect these psychological outcomes in this group.
| Variables | Statistic | p | Effect size |
|---|---|---|---|
| BIQ | 1559 | 0.097 | 0.1797 |
| BAS | 1670 | 0.268 | −0.1211 |
| Body dysmorphic disorder scale | 1899 | 0.996 | −7.89 ×10-4 |
| EQ | 1835 | 0.756 | 0.0342 |
Note: HaμNormal≠ μOverweight. BIQ: Body image questionnaire, BAS: Body appreciation scale, EQ: Eating questionnaire. p value < 0.05 have been considered significant.
The body image and BAS correlation is r = −0.430, p < 0.001, showing negative correlations as the body image dissatisfaction increases and body appreciation decreases. Individuals with more negative perceptions of their body tend to value and accept their body less positively.
As evident from Table 4, the body appreciation and BDD scale correlation is r = −0.479, p < 0.001, showing a strong negative correlation, as here higher body appreciation is associated with fewer symptoms of body dysmorphia. Individuals who appreciate their body tend to perceive flaws and distortions. The body appreciation and EQ correlation is r = −0.213, p < 0.05, showing a weak and significant negative correlation. Individuals who have a greater appreciation of their body relate to less distorted behavior. The age and BIQ correlation is r = −0.178, p < 0.05, showing a negative correlation as the age increases, body dissatisfaction slightly decreases because, as they become older, individuals experience less pressure regarding physical appearance. The positive correlation between body image and BDD scale correlation is r = 0.302, p < 0.001, showing moderate positive correlations where greater body dissatisfaction is associated with the symptoms of body dysmorphia. The BDD scale and EQ correlation is r = 0.251, p = 0.003, showing a positive correlation where more dysmorphic features are linked to higher disordered body behavior. The significant correlations are BIQ and EQ (r = 0.043, p = 0.624) and between age and the appreciation scale (r = 0.142, p = 0.101), age and the BDD scale (r = −0.113, p = 0.190), and between age and EQ (r = −0.033, p = 0.701).
| Variables | Coefficients | BIQ | BAS | BDD scale | EQ | Age |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| BIQ | Pearson’s r | — | ||||
| df | — | |||||
| p-value | — | |||||
| BAS | Pearson’s r | −0.430*** | — | |||
| df | 133 | — | ||||
| p-value | <0.001 | — | ||||
| Body dysmorphic disorder scale | Pearson’s r | 0.302*** | −0.479*** | — | ||
| df | 133 | 133 | — | |||
| p-value | <0.001 | <0.001 | — | |||
| EQ | Pearson’s r | 0.043 | −0.213* | 0.251** | — | |
| df | 133 | 133 | 133 | — | ||
| p-value | 0.624 | 0.013 | 0.003 | — | ||
| Age | Pearson’s r | −0.178* | 0.142 | −0.113 | −0.033 | — |
| df | 133 | 133 | 133 | 133 | — | |
| p-value | 0.038 | 0.101 | 0.190 | 0.701 | — |
Note: *p < 0.05, **p < 0.01, and ***p < 0.001. BIQ: Body image questionnaire, BAS: Body appreciation scale, EQ: Eating questionnaire, BDD: Body dysmorphic disorder, df: Degrees of freedom.
DISCUSSION
This study aimed to examine the relationships among body image, body appreciation, body dysmorphic symptoms, and disordered eating behaviors, while also investigating the influence of gender, gym attendance, and BMI on these psychological constructs. The findings provide significant insights into the intricate psychological mechanisms underlying body-related perceptions and behaviors among young adults.
Correlation findings
The correlation analysis revealed several significant relationships among the study variables. A moderate negative correlation was found between body image dissatisfaction and body appreciation (r = –0.430, p < 0.001), indicating that increased body dissatisfaction is associated with lower body appreciation, which supports prior findings.11 Additionally, body image dissatisfaction was positively associated with BDD symptoms (r = 0.302, p < 0.001), reinforcing the protective role of positive body image on mental health.27
The body appreciation was negatively correlated with disordered eating (r = –0.213, p = 0.013), while BDD symptoms demonstrated a positive association with disordered eating (r = 0.251, p = 0.003). These outcomes strengthen previous evidence that body dissatisfaction and distorted body perceptions are key predictors of unhealthy eating patterns.28 Interestingly, the correlation between general body image and disordered eating was not statistically significant (r = 0.043, p = 0.624), suggesting that while body image influences eating behavior, other mediating factors such as self-esteem or anxiety may also play critical roles. A weak negative trend was observed for age, consistent with previous findings indicating that body image concerns tend to diminish over time.29
Group differences
Gender differences emerged as a significant factor in body-related perceptions. Females reported notably higher body dissatisfaction compared to males (p = 0.006), which is consistent with long-standing findings in body image research.30 This may stem from societal and media pressures that promote unattainable beauty ideals for women.
Conversely, males scored higher in body appreciation (p = 0.028), suggesting a more accepting and positive attitude toward their bodies, possibly reflecting less internalization of unrealistic beauty standards.
Although females showed a higher tendency toward disordered eating behaviors (p = 0.058), this was not statistically significant. Nevertheless, this trend aligns with epidemiological evidence indicating a higher prevalence of disordered eating among women with elevated body dissatisfaction.31 No significant gender differences were identified for BDD symptoms, implying that while both genders experience body-related concerns, these concerns may manifest differently (e.g., muscularity in men versus thinness in women).
Group differences in gym participation
Unexpectedly, no significant differences were found between gym-goers and non–gym-goers for any of the four measured variables. Although gym-goers exhibited slightly higher mean scores for body appreciation and BDD symptoms, these differences were not statistically or practically significant. This finding suggests that regular exercise participation does not necessarily lead to improvements or deteriorations in body image or eating behavior. The impact of gym participation may depend on the underlying motivations for exercise—whether health-focused or appearance-focused— and the social environment within gyms.23
Group differences by BMI (normal vs. overweight)
BMI status did not produce statistically significant differences across any of the measured psychological outcomes. Participants classified as overweight displayed slightly higher body dissatisfaction and disordered eating, as well as lower body appreciation, though these differences were not significant. The absence of significant variation in BDD symptoms suggests that dysmorphic concerns are more influenced by subjective body perceptions than by objective body mass. These results imply that internal psychological factors—such as self-concept, satisfaction, and socio-cultural influences—are more critical determinants of body-related experiences than BMI itself.
Limitations
Non-normal distribution of data
The Shapiro-Wilk tests have shown that most of the variables were not normally distributed, and this constrainted the effect of using the parametric statistics method. Instead, they were tested using non-parametric statistics such as the Mann-Whitney U-test because they are more conservative and likely to diminish statistical power.
Self-report bias
Self-report questionnaires, this method could have caused a social desirability bias, particularly on sensitive subjects such as body image dissatisfaction or eating behaviors. There is a possibility that participants underreported or overreported some symptoms or behavior.
Cross-sectional design
Since the study was a cross-sectional one, it could not prove causality. Although substantial correlations were found, it cannot be said that body dissatisfaction initiates BDD or disordered eating or vice versa.
Gym motivation as a variable could have been considered
The research failed to evaluate the basis of gym attendance (e.g., health, appearance, or to relieve stress) that may also affect the body.
Key findings
Body image and body appreciation
The more one is dissatisfied with his/her body, the lower he/ she appreciates his/her body.
Body appreciation protects against disordered eating
Body appreciation is associated with fewer disordered eating attitudes and behaviors.
Gender differences
Females reported higher body dissatisfaction than males between genders, whereas males reported higher body appreciation.
BMI category differences
Overweight individuals reported more negative body image.
CONCLUSION
The research paper provided a discussion of the correlation between body image dissatisfaction, body appreciation, BDD symptoms, and disordered eating, and group differences based on gender, by taking in gym and BMI. The results indicated that body dissatisfaction was moderately related to increased BDD symptoms and decreased body appreciation, whereas the latter was strongly connected with decreased BDD symptoms and was weakly related to healthier eating behavior. There was a negative correlation (slight) between age and body dissatisfaction, which means that the older participants were less concerned with appearance.
Substantial gender variations were also presented, with females being more dissatisfied and less appreciative compared to the males, which is in line with the societal influences on the female appearance. The main factor was the lack of important distinctions between gym-goers vs. nongym-goers and normal vs. overweight BMI sections. This is an indication that factors outside the body, such as the use of the gym or body size, cannot necessarily affect body-related psychology in the absence of internalized attitudes. The results provide the need to develop positive body image and self-acceptance, especially in women and vulnerable groups.
Ethical approval:
The research/study approved by the Institutional Review Board at Sarojini Naidu College for Women, date 20 March, 2025.
Declaration of patient consent:
The authors certify that they have obtained all appropriate patient consent.
Conflicts of interest:
There are no conflicts of interest.
Use of artificial intelligence (AI)-assisted technology for manuscript preparation:
The authors confirm that they have used artificial intelligence (AI)-assisted technology solely for language refinement and to improve the clarity of writing. No AI assistance was employed in the generation of scientific content, data analysis or interpretation.
Financial support and sponsorship: Nil.
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